Paul Grice

Paul Grice was a philosopher of language whose cooperative principle explains how conversation works despite being underspecified by literal meaning.

Why?

Speakers and listeners assume each other are cooperating, which is how “can you pass the salt?” gets heard as a request, not a question about arm mobility.

Four maxims describe what cooperative speakers follow by default:

• Quantity: say enough, not too much
• Quality: be truthful
• Relation: be relevant
• Manner: be clear

Flouting

“John is a fine friend” in answer to “did John rat me out?” violates a maxim, and the flouted maxim is exactly where the real message lives.